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12月2日 Maps of the 9 "Great Nations"The "Great Nations" series
chose 9 nations. Only nations in the modern world were selected (i.e.
after 1500s). This is significant, because, as the narrative said, the
year 1500 defines the first time that different disparate parts of the
world finally met and compete (and conflict) with each other. Before that, China was the center of its part of the world, so the Chinese empire (and the Roman, Persia, Alexander, Mongolia, Ottoman Empires) did not count. The subtle message is also that, in this new order China should not be thinking about restoring its old hegemony, because that hegemony only extended to a small part of the world, i.e. NE Asia; as a result, the future objective for China is not to dominate the world, but become a major player like (the average of) what (the "three really qualified great nations") Britain, Holland and USA is playing today.
Here are the extent of these empires at their apogee. A few point worth noting
2) Spanish Empire (only the red areas) 3) Dutch Empire (Dutch was hailed for its business achievement, i.e. expanded basically without the use of force (it was noted that Dutch ships did not have guns and were therefore much lighter and cost effective than the Spanish or British ships). The subtext is that Dutch basically was competing under the modern rule of globalization competition .) 4) British Empire 5) French Empire 6) German Empire (Colonial empire shown, short term occupation in WWI and WWII not counted) 7) Japanese Empire (areas outside red/pink are short-lived occupation in WWII and should not be counted) ![]() 8) Soviet Empire (Only red areas, includes satellite states) 9) American Empire (This is post Spanish-American war map, does not include NATO sphere of influence or Okinawa after WWII, or occupied Afghanistan and Iraq) ![]() 10) Other colonial empires in wiki. 11月20日 Kuril earthquake informationsThe Kuril quake is 8.3 in Richter scale according to USGS, i.e., 10^(-0.8)=1/6 the energy of the 9.1 quake in Sumatra 2 years ago that caused the monster tsunami, and 10^(8.3-4)=10^4.3=20000 times the North Korea (alleged) "nuclear" test last month.
Many strong after-quakes were detected around 153-155E, 46-48N. ![]() There are many reasons that the tsunami is much weaker this time.
10月19日 North Korea nuclear test informationUpdate (10/10): Global security has a few satellite pictures showing the entrance of the Punggye-yok tunnel (update 10/12, H-T commentator luistxo for google location tags, and from there a previous post by armscontrolwonk) tagzaniapaste north-korea tagged map by user - Tagzania I am not sure exactly where it is located, but I found a couple suspicious buildings a few hundred meters east of the epicenter, at 41.309438E,129.19365N
tagzaniapaste north-korea tagged map by user - Tagzania ---
Google map links here. DPRK map here, the site is north of Chunhyung-ri (春兴里), or 17 km NNW of the train station Punggye-yok (豐溪驿) and just a few km south of the source of the river called Ŏrang-ch’ŏn. (渔郎川) Thee seismological information for the suspected DPRK nuke test is available on USGS's website.
About the location:
P.S. 1) see Marmot's coverage for related reports. On the moral hazard that encouraged KJI down this path, a commentator there said, "if pakistan’s experience is any indication for the consequences of a nuke test, then north korea can count on being partners with the US in the war on terror within a few years. or they could follow india’s lead, and in that case they’ll receive american nuclear technology as a “punishment.”" 2) some reports say the location is around Hwadae Kun 花台. but it does not match the longitude and latitude information by USGS 3) USGS showed the depth of the quake is "0 km" below ground/sea level. It seems to confirm SK report that it is done through horizontal tunnel into a hill. NK's announcement that no radiation leak is likely a dubious claim. underground water will carry the radiation and it may be an environment disaster (which could affect NW part of the Sea of Japan and fishing industry of Russia) 4) Update: Globalsecurity puts the location at north of Kilchu Punggye-yok 吉州郡 豐溪驛(near 豐溪里), "the general proximate vicinity of the P'unggye-yok site"
Update: SK NIS claimed a different location about 50 km south, i.e. near Musudan-ri. Since the seimological data traces the strength and direction of seismic waves from different point to triangulate the epicenter. It is considered to be more accurate. Therefore, the USGS result of Kilchu Gun, Punggye-yok (吉州郡 豐溪驛), which agrees with a site where satellite surveillance revealed suspected activitities (see, e.g., Globalsecurity), is considered to be more reliable than the South Korean claim. I am of the opinion that SK intelligence failed again. 9月27日 Outline of post-war new world map (1941)![]() This is a very interesting map, created by Maurice Gomberg in 1941 (published 1942). You can download a hi-resolution (14MB) map through this link in the lower left corner of the link above,. The format is jp2000, and a viewer can be downloaded here. I have used Kakadu View and it works fine (open with kdu_show.exe). If you don't mind the hassle of zooming online (less user-friendly, and often subject to internet delay), you can also zoom the map here. This is the short introduction given by most web-sites
Here are a few obvious notes when comparing this map with that of 1950. (Critique on the flaws of this map does remind me of Kaplanistic foot soldier "I surrounded you, Ha!" march)
9月17日 Geo-stats Sep1-14After the unblocking of blogspot in mainland China, we have more
reliable site stat data. Below is the numbers for Sep 1-14. See also
previous data (Apr-Jul) and (Apr-May) for comparison.
As can be seen, the opening of GFW in the mainland has spared at least 8% of the readers the trouble of detouring via proxy based in USA, and maybe via Canada, Singapore, Japan as well. This confirmed my hypothesis earlier. The language system (OS) are aligned with the geo-stats now.
![]() 9月6日 Nazca lines in Taipei![]() According to Etoday, there is a set of Nazca lines in Taipei all these times. The lines will be brought out in the coming weeks when protestors fill the respective streets.
![]() Street names and legends below ![]() 8月31日 Places I have been toInspired by The
88s. Technorati ProfilePlaces I have visited
Categories:
8月16日 Video map: Yakko's world!Yakko's world video Pretty great song, but the names are not all for "nations" and the data and maps are quite old. (It was probably produced in the early 1990s, soon after Germany was united in Oct 1990. "soon" because you still see the USSR map. However, the author probably failed to notice that Yemens were united in May 1990) So these notes are needed if you are teaching the kids
Despite all these faults, still an impressive task in puting them into an intersting song. If you like it, there is also a flag version. ...and the solar system, american state capitals. Map: Beirut levelledBeirut on July 31st, after Israel bombed (vis Terrorism News) The location is about 3.5km NE of Beirut Airport. ![]() You can zoom in for the pre-bombing satellite image with Google map location at 33.853N, 35.509E. ![]() Zoomed in the affected quarter, ![]() This is probably where the Hezbollah headquarter building was located. But it is fair to say that
Update: wiki has the hi-resolution picture of the damage (not globalscape picture is rotated by 90 degrees. N is to the left hand side) ![]() 8月1日 Map: Doolittle Raid - raid from Shangri-la![]() ![]() I recently watched an old Japanese movie Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku 連合艦隊司令長官山本五十六, a well made movie, portraying Yamamoto Isoroku (山本五十六) as a strategic visionary who knew that instead of allying with German and Italy and fighting the US, Japan should have focused on its 4-year old war in China alone. In the movie it was mentioned that one of the triggers for the Battle of Midway was the Doolittle Raid in Tokyo on April 18, 1942 (which was depicted (with some mirrow factual errors) in the much lamer movie Pearl Harbor). Yamamoto decided that the US aircraft carriers should be destroyed to protect Japan from air raids. Dollittle Raid itself was a total failure as a military campaign. All the 16 B-25 bombers crash landed after running out of fuel (except 1, which was confiscated by the "neutral" USSR at the time), although none was damaged in the raid. Japan lost about 50 people and another 250 wounded (mostly minor injury), plus some 90 factories damaged to different extent. The objective was supposed to boost the morale domestically in US, which has been achieved. Arguably additional (undesired) strategic benefit include forcing repatrication of some of Japan's fighters to defend the cities, and most importantly, Midway. Midway is, arguably the turning point in the Pacific Theater. Though the destiny of the war has already been determined when US entered. Even if Japan had won Midway, it would only have delayed the US coutner-attach by a few months to a year, since US would have produced more carriers in the long run. War is determined by economy and technology. Furthermore, the schedule of the development of the Atomic Bomb was indifferent to the result of Midway. In the maps above you could see the flight paths of these 16 bombers. The reason it ran out of fuel was because the aircraft carriers were encountered Japanese warships and had to launch the attack 200 miles (300 km) before the planned launch location, i.e., 1120km from Tokyo. An animate map of the Doolittle Raid can be found here. A detailed account (in Chinese) here. The original destinations were supposed to be Quzhou (west of Zhejiang province, 浙江衢州, map below) and Nanchang of Jiangxi province (江西南昌), which were not occupied by the Japanese at the time. Unfortunately the crash landing scattering in an area of 500 sq km around Anhui, Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. ![]() Among the 75 Americans landed in China
In the 3 months after the crash landing, Japanese army raided Chinese villages and killed 250,000 civilians in the area. The notorious Unit 731 participated in the action, testing its newly developed biological weapon. Some other tidbits (see wiki and zh.wiki)
7月11日 Yaks love the Qinghai Tibet Railway (ii) -- and geographyThe Railway under construction in 2005 ![]() First, the yaks love the new railway! (more yak on rail pictures here) ![]() Weighing 1000kg a yak could derail a train. This offers a second explanation to why the rail needs to be guarded. --- Geography ![]() ![]() ![]() The highest point of the Railway is near Tanggula Pass. at 5072m (16,600ft) above sea level, i.e.,
Just south of the Tanggula Pass Station (5068m) is the highest point of the railway (5072m). 20km of the railway is above 5000m. 780 km from 4500 to 5000m. The railways rises to above around 5000m, near the 1338m long Fenghuo Shan Tunnel and continue to be around that altitude beyond the pass. About 550km in length of this section is on permafrost, i.e. so high that the temperature is always signigicantly below freezing point. Stations, tunnels and bridges on railway ![]() Related links: 1) Wiki's station list, and stations with vista points. 2) Chinapage 3) Schaefer's "The Railway to Tibet" 4) BBC' new report on inauguration July 1st (video) 5) Timesonline: Passages for endangered chiru, and "Video monitoring shows that more than 800 antelope have already passed under the railway" ![]() 6) Comminganarchy has discussion on merit of train travel in the comment section --- These pictures were taken in June between Andu and Tanggula Pass stations Tibet Antelope (Chiru) (see also early post) ![]() Tibetan donkey ![]() Where did Taepodong-2 land? (ii)BBC has this chart, showing the Long range missile (TPD-2) landed about 400 km east of Korean coast (launch site musidan-ri). ![]() ...and wiki has a similar one According to wiki, Taepodong-2's full speed is around 8-9km/s, and that the missile landed about 40 seconds after it was launched. Let's do some simple maths, on the maximum distance the missile travelled. Let's assume the missile reached top speed before it landed (more likely it didn't. it would have started burning the second stage if it did, plus acceleration stopped a few seconds before it reached water surface), and let's assume only the horizontal component of the velocity (the range would be smaller for parabolic trajectory, because the horizontal component is less than 8-9km/s), then the upper bound of the distance traveled is:
In reality the distance the missile traveled was at most 50-100km from the launch site. i.e. closer to NK than Russia and it should be to the west end of BBC's green ellipse. BBC's red ellipse seems to be placed totally wrong. Update: Globalsecurity confirms my hypothesis here. It also showed that the S Korean claim of 499km is incorrect and "appears to be mixing the other missile flight data observations". In fact, Globalsecurity's estime is only 1.4km, confirming my suspection that a lot of the energy was given to the vertical thrust upward.
7月7日 Qinghai Tibet railway videos![]() 1) Beautiful Tibet Railway clip from Taiwan TV recording. Chinese subtitle, Tibetan singing (link). 2) A series of video clips in Cantonese, Chinese subtitle, plus picture/wallpaper download. (Oriental Daily) ![]() 3) Travelogue by a Dutch tourist in Tibet (the trip started in HK, ended in Beijing)see Sander Nijdam's travelogue (in Dutch, but picture is language independent). 4) Related links: ESWN, Tim Johnson (don't miss the comments below), Ming Pao op-ed on Tibet Railway vs Yangtze Dam, Environmental Measures in QTR (includes interesting anecdotes about how to build a bridge to avoid blocking the antelop passage, and how to convince the antelopes to pass under the bridge). 5) (Update) Read Times reporter Jane Macartney's travel diary at her blog (updated daily!). (Via Shanghai) 7月2日 World Cup geography
Quarter-final will begin in an hour. The 8 quarter-finalists are, co-incidentally, the countries with highest populations in Europe and South America
Prediction for quarter-final (according to population, or
democratic voting, or FIFA marketing)
Categories:
----------- Update: since the Brazilian non-team failed even after some minor biase from the referee, history of host-continent wins world cup (i.e. there are only 2 qualified continents) is ensured. with the population rule (which, statistically means a larger pool of good players), it will be franco-prussian war in the final. and prussia will prevail. 6月28日 Surfing Google Earth (ii)Update, without installing google earth, google map can also be used. just type the coordinates in the same syntax, e.g. "42 39 19 N, 94 10 02 E". More cool surfing on Google Earth. This one is the banner plus a map of China viewable in the satellite. Inside the map sketch it is a national flag, plus "Motherland in my heart", to the East (note N is point at 8 o'olock in this map) of this is "Protect our country, guard the border". I suspect this was painted during the cold war before USSR collapsed.Location: On the southern end of China-Kyrgistan border, 50km West of Uluqqat, 200km west of Kashi. The border town is called Simuhana.---Update on the previous banners near Hami:1. Precise size of the banners were measured. e.g. 300mx50m for the banner shown above.2. It was said (in comment field) these were painted for airplane pilot training purposes (by "No 8 Pilot College" of the airforce), to assist them to find the small airport when they land. You can see the airport on google earth near of the banner in the middle of the cluster. In 1960s we did not have GPS/etc.---Other cool stuffs:In People's Square, Chengdu, you can also see the banner "Happy New Year". (and many company logos on top of buildings we can see as we land in US airports, though these are all smaller than the Cultural Revolution banners above) Coordinates on previous post:42 32'33.95" N 94 19'36.80" e ---为人民服务42 39'18.85" N 94 10'00.80" e ---毛主席万岁!42 27'12.08" N 94 08'49.36" e ---排除万难去争取胜利42 39'33.30" N 94 16'00.59" e ---只争朝夕42 27'40.95" N 94 14'36.80" e ---向斗争中学习Coordinates for new cool stuff!Simuhana coordinates above39 41'43.47" N 73 55'37.17" e ---祖国在我心中 in China map (to the east of this: 卫国戍边)39 43'34.55"N 73 56'59.58"E --- 祖国万岁 Long Live Motherland (to the NW there is a small string of characters too small to recognize, anyone venture a guess?)39 43'08.75"N 73 57'14.16"E --- 斯姆哈纳欢迎您44 18n,86 39e (距石河子48-49公里) --- mechanical agriculture in Shihezi, west of UrumqiShangri-la Buddhist script香格里拉-松赞林寺 27.86808444N, 99.69783333E (Songzanlin Temple, name of lama temple in Tibetan and Chinese, Shangr-La, Yunnan40°21'15.41",116°00'24.21" Badaling Great WallInteresting points in other countries32.165978,-110.854884 ---Davis Monthan AFB, US18.5784602315, 73.9199699249 --- Sukhoi 30 MKI, India38°43'14.73"N, 121°15'23.64"E --- Chinese submarine in Boahi Bay34.0833816528, 139.528656006 -- Miyake-jima, smoking volcano in Japan53 31'54.33N,1 21'22.63W --- "The signs" A635/Darfield, South of Leeds, England14°41'11.61"S,75°10'23.26"W --- Nazca lines, Peru51°52'17.78"N,0°34'0.13"W --- "apparent airplane collision" Edlesborough, SW of Luton, England69°15'32.22"N 33°14'17.11"E --- Capsized ship, Saida Bay, N of Murmansk, Russia51°4'47.1"N6°59'18"E --- burning car, on A3 autobahn near Gieslenberg, N of Leverkusen, Germany,47.62778500/-122.24189100 Bill Gates' House, Medina, WA, USA37°39'56.22"N116° 1'30.90"W Mysteriuos triangle (inscribing circles), Nevada, 300km east of Yosemite37°50'38.81"N116°43'53.01"W Underground Nuke or Nuke waste storagr(?), Nevada, 250km N of Las Vegas40.09505600/128.34080800 Alleged N Korea nuke facilities, Soho-ri, between Hongwon and Sinpo40°45'52.01"N 74° 0'1.23"W USS ENterprise at Manhattan west side48°52'26.79"N,2°17'42.66"E --- Arc de Triumph48°48'17.76"N,2° 7'18.24"E --- Palace Verseilles41°53'24.32"N,12°29'31.16"E --- Colisuem, Roma29°58'43.41"N,31° 8'5.06"E --- Pyramid29°58'31.81"N,31° 8'15.10"E --- Sphinx27.9782502279, 86.9221941736 --- 珠穆朗玛峰(Mount Everest)22°57'5.72"S,43°12'36.65"W Rio de Janeiro, Jesus Statue3° 3'53.24"S,37°20'56.85"E Kilimanjaro, snow cap in equator. (Note Al Gore's pictures are midleading. He took pcitures from different times in the year)51°10'44.32"N,1°49'43.38"W --- Stone Henges, UK13° 09'48.07"S,72°32'44.69"W --- Machu Picchu, Peru6月18日 New Google earth beta: better resolutionDownload new Google Earth Beta here. More user-friendly controls, better resolution in many locations. e.g.Cultural Revolution remnant mega-slogasn seen from space - 100-150 km ESE of Hami 哈密 City (N of Yandun烟墩), Xinjiang(You can enter latittude/longitude coordinates shown in local left corner of the pictures to "fly" directly to the locations, use space to separate minutes/seconds, and comma to separate longitude from latitude) More pictures with coords can be found at here, enjoy the treasure hunt.Precise locations of each slogan shown here In Spratly, Vietnam has built many airports through aggressive land-filling, before our friends in Taiwan started debating on whether to build it or not. (Note there is a boat on the west side of the island)More pictures with coords can be found at here.6月4日 Introducing GapminderHat tips to Sean Meade @ Thomaspbarnett.com, comes this amazing tool called gapminder (google tool). For example, downloaded versions at gapminder.orgLooking at the chart above (where the circle series shows data from year 1975-2004), we see the fetrtility rate in most countries are dropping, except for USA and Russia. Russian income and fertility rate both took a turn around 1996-7, very likely a result of the economic/political transition after USSR collapsed. A few hypothesis regarding Malthus
5月5日 How to get from Taipei to Asuncion(As David noted in the comment below, ASU is 78 miles from the anti-pole of TPE, which makes the additional mileage in detours less dramatic than that of MVD. You can replace ASU with MVD in the "paths box" of the great circle links, you will see the difference in mileages are much bigger.) --- (Warning: this is really a map/geography post, not a political post. The author takes Ah Bian "Astray Diplomacy 迷航外交" as an excuse to blog on geography.) ![]() The shortest route from Taipei to Therefore, a fueling station is needed. CSB wanted to refuel at NYC, SFO or LAX. But these paths do not make much sense, said DPP legislator Lin Cho-Shui. Lin contends that the purpose of the trip is to visit Montevideo, not big cities in USA.
P.S. US also suggested the best path for Taipei-San Jose(Costa Rica), CSB obliged. CSB also chose ANC over HNL as transit point to ASU, due to better path and logistics.
Update: Latest rumour: CSB is making a 'protest transit' at Tripoli or Beirut. TPE-BEY-ASU=12381; TPE-BEY-ASU=12385 Better choices than ANC. New update (May 4): Ooops it is Abu Dhabi! Lebanon rejected the request. A small problem: TPE-AUH-ASU=4139+8234=12373 miles, although an overall shorter distance, it is not a mid-point refuel. i.e. the second segment AUH-ASU is 8234 miles, 747 can handle this with no problem, but for safety, it might need a "forced" re-fuel if encounters headwind. Let's pray for the wind. New update (May 5): According to the "Foreign Minister" Huang, the Aquafresh plane will have to refuel at Dominican Republic again. Pretty big detour this time. New mileage: TPE-AUH-SDQ-ASU=4139+7671+3111=14911, what a mileage run! Is CSB trying to earn more miles for his children? Given the recent controversial of family member tag-along to AUH. (update): Of course, there is a latest twist. Because the ground temperature in AUH is too high, 47 degrees Celsius. The plane could not refuel fully (avoid high pressure in gas tank). The plane could not even reach Santo Domingo, it stopped at Amsterdam. TPE-AUH-AMS-ASU=13891. Refueling stop for the return trip is another game to play. "Guerilla diplomacy", some say. Perhaps not Anchorage. 4月16日 Explain the world from a map You can explain a lot of questions from looking at a map. You can also spot patterns and form hypothesis/theory with a map. Example by examining this physical geography map of Asia
3月9日 Ethnic Autonomous Units in China, and the ethnic compositionsChina has 5 Autonomous Regions at provincial level (Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Tibet, Ningxia, Guangxi), 30 Autonomous Zhou (under a province/region but larger than a county), 120 Autonomous Counties. i.e. 155 Autonomous Regions in total. (More details here, and here) This article below has some interesting insights, about the population composition and speculations on the political motivation behind the demarcation.
中国的民族自治地方
时间:2006-01-10
在近代的浪潮中,阶级斗争、妇女解放、民族自治具备一个共同点:它们都是反体系的。在这一基础上,我们可以理解这三者在新中国的革命话语中所具备的合法地位,也理所当然地得到公开提倡。然而,革命在激发民族主义的同时,也是反民族主义的,因为它的成功依赖于一种普世的价值观。 一、民族自治:面纱下的人口结构 截止2004年底,中国一共有5个自治区、30个自治州、119个自治县/旗;其面积占国土的64%。然而如果我们仔细考察这些自治地方的沿革,就会发现,地级以上自治地方绝大部分都是在1958年之前设立的。之后20年完全陷于停顿,1978年后只增设了2个自治州(同时又撤消了另1个)以及50个自治县。 这一点在自治州这一级上表现得尤为明显,现有的30个自治州,有28个是在1950到1958年的短短八年之间接二连三地设立起来的。这与五大自治区的设立基本同步(内蒙古最早,1947;新疆1955;宁夏/广西1958;西藏1965)。 1958年,正是大跃进开始的前夕。到这一年,民族自治地方的设立,在布局上实际上已经基本完成,此后也很少作更改和大的触动。但这一完成,立刻就名存实亡,文革前后的民族自治,实质与内地县市全无差别。即使今天,如果以人口结构的观点来看,这些自治地方的行政区划是具有很多令人困惑的地方的,例如: 1、2000年,内蒙古人口中少数民族仅为20.76%(1953年才15.73%);宁夏为34.53%,广西38.34%——这三个自治区中,汉族在人口上均已占绝对优势,但它们的名义仍为自治区。同时,云南的少数民族人口比例为33.41%,贵州37.85%,甚至还比以上三个自治区高,但它们仍是省。如果说原因是因为云南、贵州的少数民族众多,不如以上三个自治区有优势的主体民族,那么青海如何?该省2000年少数民族占45.51%(1953年更高,50.95%),民族也相对单一,以藏族和回族为主,但我们没有“青海藏族自治区”。 2、现在有地州一级以上自治地方的民族共有19个。但55个少数民族中,有几个人口众多的民族却不享有这一地位:例如人口1068万的满族(人口列第2,仅次于壮族);瑶族(264万,第12);黎族(125万,第17);畲族(71万,第19)。而人口仅16万的柯尔克孜族(第31)、13万的景颇族(第33位)人口数排在20位以后的却享有自治州地位。 如果说满族是因为居住分散(这是同化的必要条件,美国有3000万黑人,也不设什么黑人自治州)而不得享有这一地位,那么瑶族等就很难这样解释;而黎族一度有海南自治州,但在1987年海南建省时被撤消。事实上好几个比柯尔克孜族和景颇族人口更多的民族也是聚居的,例如纳西族。 3、在所有30个自治州中,汉族在其中16个占有人口第一的优势(另7个居第2);这一人口优势事实上很少改变。1978年,汉族在全国民族自治地方的人口比例曾达到61%(1999年为54.2%)。以云南为例,思茅地区汉族仅占39%,但它却不是自治州,而同省的楚雄彝族自治州汉族占68%,还高于临沧地区(汉族占61%)。 通常来说,一个民族自治地方的设立,是因为特殊的历史原因,但最重要的,应当是民族结构。例如福建的土著本也是闽越族,但既然汉族的同化早已彻底改变其民族结构,我们自然也不必设立“福建自治区”;同样,也从没人说过要设立“台湾高山族自治区”。 基于这一显而易见的原因,一个自治地方的主体民族应是在人口结构上占有优势的世居民族。但我们已经看到,事实往往远非如此。不必说云南、贵州、青海看起来似乎更有理由成为自治区,即使在自治州内,如果横向比较,也有很多令人困惑之处,例如: 1、四川阿坝藏族自治州1955年成立后,于1978年在名字中加入“羌族”;但羌族只占该州人口18%;而在云南怒江,白族占28%,仅次于傈僳族;云南迪庆,傈僳族占29%,仅次于藏族,但他们的名字都不并列为主体民族; 2、更奇怪的是很多自治州的主体民族,实际在自己的地盘里也是“少数民族”。例如克孜勒苏柯尔克孜族自治州,主体民族柯尔克孜族实际上只相当于人口的29%(而维吾尔族却占64%);最极端是新疆的两个蒙古族自治州,蒙古族人口分别仅占4%和6%。但这三个州的主体民族都不是人口占多数的维吾尔族。如果说新疆是因为它已经是维吾尔族自治区,那么青海海北藏族自治州呢?这里回族占25%,高于藏族20%的比例——但它并不叫“海北回族藏族自治州”。 一些自治县的情况也如此,例如1984年成立的景宁畲族自治县(浙江),畲族仅占人口10%;贵州第一个民族自治地方:威宁彝族自治县1954年11月成立,但该县汉族占74.6%;比较晚近成立的如道真仡佬族苗族自治县(1987.11.29),汉族却只占21.2%;务川仡佬族苗族自治县(1987.11.26),汉族仅占4.3%。按道理,道真和务川不是早该比威宁先成立自治县吗? 当然,也有人会说,你以2000年的人口结构去衡量是不对的,因为该地方设立时的1950年代结构或许的确是少数民族占优势。但这也是不能说服人的。如内蒙古,早在1947年设立时,汉族已经占人口优势。因此,我们可以完全断定,设立民族自治地方的原因,并不完全在于民族人口的结构。 二、行政区划的秘密 在中国历史上,对待少数民族地区的办法主要是羁縻制(核心是只要承认中央,一切全随当地旧制),这实际上是一种高度自治的控制手段,其起因不如说是因为中央政府鞭长莫及。但在明清以降,就逐步开始大规模的“改土归流”政策,大力推行郡县制,废除土司——这一政策主要在西南地区展开,伴随着大规模强制措施,甚至不惜大开杀戒。 近代的不少忧国人物,从大汉族主义的角度来看,他们都是非常优秀的边疆事务管理者,但他们通常却都有一种相同的出发点:即认为国家要巩固边疆以御外侮,根本手段之一是同化当地少数民族。晚清治藏的张荫棠就是最著名的例子。这一点在民国人物中也常是共识。如1927年访问新疆的徐旭生,对汉族教育无法同化缠回(维吾尔族),深感忧虑。在这一意识下,出现一种Owen Lattimore所说的“次帝国主义”——即遭受帝国主义巨大压力的汉族,为巩固边疆,又对蒙古族等大力实行同化政策。 我们今天无须太苛责前人。因为在一种被“围困”的情形下,人最容易有这种团结一致的紧迫感。例如法国大革命时,最紧要的措施之一,就是消除“五六个不同的法国”,而把全国强行整齐划一。经过1789年的大风暴后,之前具有独立倾向、与法国内地相比形同外国的地区如阿尔萨斯-洛林、布列塔尼、科西嘉等,都逐渐法兰西化,以至最后完全一致,到现在已根本没必要设立自治区(而意大利却有5个自治大区)。 不过同在法国一样,过于急迫的措施最终将激起当地人的抵触情绪。因此,在新中国革命的浪潮中,民族工作成为一项重要内容,其核心之一是将所有罪状归咎于封建制度,而宣称从此将享受阶级、性别、民族一切方面的平等。 这诚然是令人欢欣鼓舞的。中央政府给予民族自治地方以足够的重视与尊重,但同时,它也三番五次地暗示,祖国是一个大家庭,而中国民族分布的特点就是“多民族大杂居,小聚居”——散居是民族同化的首要前提。这一点对于形容西南地区民族,并无大的漏洞(因为当地山区,民族呈垂直分布);但对蒙、藏、回、维等北方民族,却未必恰当——实际上我们也可看出,藏族是一个最大的苦恼:2000年人口542万(相当于全国的4%)、仅列各少数民族第9位的藏族,却有1个自治区和10个自治州,面积占全国1/4。即使从这一点来看,青海设立为自治区也是不可取的,而宁可在其下面再分别设立6个藏族自治州。西康省的废除,在我看来也是同样原因,因为不废除,很难解释为什么西康不改为藏族自治区(1953年西康省藏族人口占近70%)。 一个国家的历史,总有其连贯性,新中国也不例外——虽然它一直声称要和万恶的旧社会一刀两断。在中国的行政沿革中,自古有两条最重要的法则:山川形便和犬牙相入。简单地说就是既要依照当地情况,但又要设置可控制的前哨。 在我看来,新中国的民族区域自治也贯彻着这一思想,最显著的无过于新疆。通过把大片土地切割给哈萨克、蒙古、回族、柯尔克孜族等四个少数民族作为自治州,维吾尔族周旋的余地大为减弱。例如克孜勒苏州,1954年设立时主体民族柯尔克孜族还不到7万人,在该州的人口中大大低于维吾尔族,其首府阿图什在1930年瑞典学者雅林到访时仅是疏附县的一个小镇。但该州的地域从地图上正好挡住维吾尔族向西的路线——而历史上多次中亚的叛乱或入侵正是由此前往喀什的。 还有青海海西蒙古族藏族自治州。该州在长江源头一带有一块飞地,遂在一大片藏族占优势的地区中插入一个蒙古族为主导的地区(但该州人口中蒙古族也只占7%,而汉族占80%)。 另一种办法则是内蒙古模式:1947年成立内蒙古自治区时,其范围仅包括该区今天的东北部分(面积相当于现在的40%)——这也是当时蒙古族人口仍占优势的一个地区。但此后将察哈尔、绥远等地划给内蒙古,其面积遂大幅度扩张,首府也由乌兰浩特迁张家口,再迁呼和浩特。表面上看,这是中央对蒙古族的高度重视,将蒙古族历史上分布的广大区域全划给它,但通过这一划分,也使蒙族在该自治区人口中的比例由32%急剧下降到仅仅15%左右。与此类似的四川凉山州,1978年将西昌地区大半划入凉山,首府由昭觉迁至西昌——但彝族人口比例也下降到50%以下。 就此而论,一些人认为新疆、内蒙地域广阔,应分为几个省级区的办法,我认为短期内是不会被采纳的。尤其是新疆,如果分为北疆、南疆两省区,则势必面临一个维族人口占多数的南疆,有一个西藏已经够麻烦的了。这个道理正如巴勒斯坦有人(现在卡扎菲也这么想)提议把阿拉伯人完全并入以色列,遭到拒绝,因为要是这样,以色列就不再是一个犹太国家了。 三、矛盾:错误还是善意? 我这里提出的一些个人解释,有的或许是诛心之论。虽然中国的民族区域行政规划看来有大量难以解释的矛盾之处,但毕竟这一问题在汉族地区也大量存在,陕西、四川、安徽、江苏等省行政区划的不合理,前人早已指出,并呼吁再三(参谭其骧相关文章);更何况,这些矛盾的地方,也并非中国所独有。 美国记者Hedrick Smith在《俄国人》中,提到远东的“犹太自治州”,这个1934年指定成立的自治州,到1970年左右,人口中只有18%是犹太人,“多数犹太人认为这是一出生拼硬凑的滑稽戏”。到1998年,犹太人口更下降至仅4.2%(考虑一下,2004年新疆巴音郭楞州蒙古族也只有4%),去年该州已经在改革倡议把“自治”两字从州名中删除掉。 在现在俄罗斯的各自治单位中,情况也类似,如萨哈共和国,主体民族雅库特人占34%;楚瓦什人在本共和国占69%。但俄罗斯的自治共和国却有很大自治权,如国旗国徽国歌、以及俄语外的第二官方语言。 前南斯拉夫则是另一个悲剧。1991年官方统计,该国阿尔巴尼亚族族人有172.8万,为全国第二大民族,而黑山族仅52万,只占5%。但黑山人可以作为一个共和国与塞尔维亚平起平坐,人口三倍半于黑山的阿族却只是塞尔维亚一个自治省。阿族不但人口多,而且居住非常集中。阿族占科索沃省总人口的90%,而黑山人只占黑山共和国人口的62%,塞尔维亚人也只占本共和国的65%。塞尔维亚的另一个自治省:伏依伏丁纳,主体的匈牙利族仅占人口21%。事实上,阿尔巴尼亚族对这一“不公平的行政划分”,是科索沃战争的主要起因之一。 我不想在此骤下断论:这些区划的矛盾都是对少数民族的防范和损害,实际上,稍具常识地对比国外的情况,就知道在这一问题上一碗水端平,是极不可能的事,因此各国无一例外都以历史因素为重要的划分依据。这在某种程度上是说得过去的,例如新疆的巴音郭楞州,虽然现在蒙族人口仅占4%,相当于维族的1/8,但历史上这里长期是蒙族所有,和静还有蒙族王府。不去碰触这个问题,维持现状是一个可取的办法。如海湾石油国家由于引进大批外来劳力,一些地方阿拉伯人早已是人口中的少数,但其主体民族地位是不得改变的。 新中国的民族自治,并非全是装门面,也有一些是真的为少数民族着想,虽然有时这种善意也令人啼笑皆非。例如民国时的风云人物宁夏马氏家族、白崇禧,都是回民,坚定的穆斯林,但他们还有一个共同点:反对“回族”这一说法。在他们看来,回民只是汉族中信仰伊斯兰教的一支,其差别相当于客家人和北方人的差别。且回民大量散居城镇(如河南不少县城都叫“城关回族镇”就可见一斑),早已同化。但回族仍被识别为一个单独民族。这一情况可与南斯拉夫类比:波黑穆斯林实际上也是塞尔维亚人信仰伊斯兰教的一支,但铁托身为一个克罗地亚人,为防范大塞尔维亚主义,将之单独划分为一个民族。 满清覆灭后,大量满族都隐瞒了自己的民族身份;这一点在文革期间尤为显著。因此,1990年人口普查时满族人口数比1982年增长竟达129%(全国平均13%)。更惊人的是1956年才被识别为单一民族的土家族,1990年的人口数是1964年普查时的1027%(仅仅一代人的时间,人口增长10倍)!这些都无法用人口自然增长来解释,而只能认为是“落实政策”后由于特殊优惠,而使大批隐瞒身份或本已同化的人又转而改变民族。极端的例子如贵州沿河土家族自治县,1982年普查时,全县40万人,只有243人报称是少数民族,而且全是外地调入的干部。但“落实政策”予以扶持后,短短两年内,就有18.5万人改变民族成分。 1955年被授予大将军衔的粟裕,曾被毛泽东有次戏问:“你是湘西人(按,粟是湖南会同人),是不是苗族?”但粟本人至死一直都自认是汉族。他死后两年,根据相关民族识别研究,他被认定是侗族——这一点后来通过中央批准。试想想:一个人从来不认为自己是侗族,死后被追认是侗族,但还须领导批准! 新中国的民族识别工作,和苏联的很相似,而与西方颇不相同。按西方民族学,如果甲族与乙族不自认为是同一民族,那尊重其习俗,就算两个民族。但在中国,一族是不是这么认为并非最重要,还要经过“民族识别”,如摩梭人自认不属纳西族,但仍被划为纳西族;彝族有五六个不同部落,互相都不认为是同族,但仍全被算作彝族(这些部落在越南等地,就被算作不同民族)。台湾的高山族,现在台湾习惯上认为他们是9个不同民族,但我们仍识别为同一族。就此而言,我们似乎也不能说这是对少数民族“分而治之”,若真要分化,断可以把中国的民族数量至少增加到100个。 当然,这类工作中最令人费解的是所谓“无法识别民族”,例如云南的芒人和苦聪人,他们不算在56个民族之列,但他们既然自认与他族有别,民族学者也无法否认,那么为什么不另列一个呢?何谓“无法识别”?这真是非常令人哭笑不得的术语。 四、何谓自治? 鲍大可在1988年访问汉族占压倒优势的内蒙古自治区后,曾在《中国西部四十年》中说:“用‘自治’这个词来修饰内蒙古这样的地区纯属用词不当。……我又问自治的实际含义是什么,他们说,最显著的特征是能在许多方面向蒙古族提供优惠待遇。”我们的官员对“自治”的理解确实通常仅限于此,多数人可能根本没有考虑过这个问题。 对民族自治地区提供这种经济优惠的思维,几乎是一种本能,所谓“老、少、边、穷”,都被并列为需要特别照顾和扶持的对象。但这一制度的结果是:扶植了一大批“民族干部”,他们成为既得利益者,因而也就成为坚定的维持现状者。 2003年,有人动议重新设立海南的黎族苗族自治州,其主要理由也是经济性的,即“加快民族地方建设和社会发展”,并指出其他中西部省份的民族自治地方都有受到中央的扶持。 在我看来,这一动议是毫无意义的。在回顾历史的时候,我们不能忘记,新中国始终是一个单一制国家,虽然1965年以前,西藏曾有过短暂的一段的“一国两制”岁月,但最终迅速地以完全彻底的平复告终。在我看来,中国的民族自治制度,标志着历史上“改土归流”的最终完成。 以海南黎族苗族自治州为例。该州1955年成立,但3年后的1958年,即因为大跃进而迁至海口与海南行政公署共同办公,自治州名存实亡。1984年颁布《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》,但又是在仅仅3年后,1987年,海南建省,撤消自治区。 值得注意的是:这些行政区划上的变更波动,没有引起任何的抗议或骚乱,这正好证明是否有自治的名号,对群众生活全无实质性影响。而我们如果记得,应该知道科索沃战争的直接导火线就是南斯拉夫总统米洛舍维奇试图进一步限制和剥夺当地阿尔巴尼亚族的自治权。但在中国,撤消自治州,我相信不会引起任何的大规模抗议活动,相反可能还会庆贺:例如云南丽江县、海南东方县升为市,都取消了“民族自治”的名义(中国可没有“自治市”),但却是各族一派欢腾的景象。正如鲍大可说的,用自治来修饰这些地方,纯属用词不当。 不仅如此,在我看来,自治州事实上将成为越来越尴尬的一级政府。在苏联和南斯拉夫崩溃之后,全世界所有国家大多实行的都是三级制政府:即中央、省、县(因此如印度、意大利、芬兰、加拿大、俄罗斯等,民族自治单位不少是省级的,直属中央)。但中国却多两级:地/州,以及下面的乡。以后的方向将是裁撤乡村干部,同时虚化、弱化地一级政府。全国所有省区包括新疆等在内,新设立的县级市大多都属省/区直辖。这种情况只要推广开来,将来地级就成为一个不必要的一级。海南正是最激进的一个试验地:现在整个海南都已实现这一目标(即所有县/市都由省直辖),全岛的电话都属一个区号。很难设想海南会再退回去多设一个自治州出来——既然它本来也仅仅是个名义而已。 从国家利益的角度讲,融合远比分离的自治要可取。这也是为什么美国的立国者禁止设立封闭的社团,而要求每一个县设立的标准必须是英语人口占多数,并提倡散居。而俄罗斯和南斯拉夫,最终都分崩离析。从这一点来说,民族自治地方是一个不得已、却至少是有用的政治手法。 附带说一下,民族人口几乎已经成为中国统计学上的一个秘密。2000年的人口普查,一直没有发布各民族人口数字,历年《中国统计年鉴》上也不予公布;而《2000年民族统计年鉴》上关于民族人口部分可利用的数据也很少。还有一组我很感兴趣、却从未看到过的数据:即各族人口中操本族语、以汉语为母语、以及熟练使用汉语的人口比例。类似的数据在前苏联的研究中都是公开的。 在各省区公开的统计年鉴中,只有新疆和云南有分县市民族人口统计,其余各省都不作公布,例如青海、四川、贵州,在年鉴上均无法查到自治州/县内民族人口结构。因此下表中除了新疆和云南外,其余数据均属Google等途径四处拼凑来,幸好这些数字历年变化也不大,尚可作参考。 |
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